A Nation that Mastered the Art of Water (Part 39)
By Ama H. Vanniarachchy
The city of Anuradhapura, with its kingdom and civilisation, stood as a marvel of the ancient world during its peak. Even after the city fell into disrepair and was largely forgotten, its legacy continued to inspire awe. Among the most notable features of this ancient metropolis are its monumental art and architecture, including the towering stupas and the impressive Buddhist monasteries. However, a deeper exploration of Anuradhapura’s history reveals that its greatest achievement was its advanced irrigation system, unparalleled not only in ancient Sri Lanka but in the wider ancient and modern world.
This recognition is not a mere display of national pride but an unbiased testament to historical truth. The irrigation network designed and developed by the Sinhalese of Anuradhapura outshines many wonders of the ancient world. Without this sophisticated system, the construction of massive stupas, extensive monasteries, and other architectural marvels would not have been possible. The tanks and canals were the very lifeblood of the Anuradhapura kingdom, sustaining thousands of acres of land in the dry zone and transforming it into fertile, green paddy fields and productive farmland.
Irrigation work in the rest of the island
It is important to acknowledge that alongside Anuradhapura, a thriving urban civilisation also emerged in the Southern region of Sri Lanka, known as the Rohana kingdom, centred in Magama. The urban development and innovations of Anuradhapura gradually extended to the Southern and Eastern regions of the island, facilitating the spread of its culture and technological achievements.
Historical chronicles and early inscriptions dating to the 3rd and 2nd century BCE provide evidence of numerous tanks and canals constructed in the Ruhuna regions, including Magama, as a result of the spread of the Anuradhapura urban civilisation. Tanks from this period in the Ruhunu area include Durutissa Wewa, Vihara Wewa, Sundari Wewa, Labhiya Vasabha Wewa, and Diga Wewa.
During the 2nd century BCE, the Dighavapi area (modern Galoya Valley area), was transformed into a major agricultural zone by Prince Saddhatissa. He established an intricate system of irrigation canals that supported extensive farming in the region.
Historians point out that the northernmost regions of the island, particularly the modern Jaffna Peninsula, were not favourable to constructing large reservoirs and channels due to geographical constraints. Similarly, the wet zone and Central highlands had been home to human settlements since prehistoric times, yet, their climate and geography did not support population growth and urban expansion to the same extent as the North Central Plain, Northwest, South, Northeast, East, Southwest and Southeast regions of Sri Lanka.
What do ancient inscriptions reveal about our irrigation legacy?
Early Brahmi inscriptions discovered across the island provide valuable insights into the ancient irrigation practices of Sri Lanka. These inscriptions often detail the donation of tank income or the gifting of entire tanks and channels to monasteries. This laid the foundation for the integrated economic, administrative, and social framework of ancient Sri Lanka, encapsulated in the philosophy of Wewai Dagabai, Gamai Pansalai.
Additionally, they reveal the existence of irrigation and hydraulic engineers and officials who were responsible for the upkeep and management of tanks, channels, and the broader irrigation network of ancient Anuradhapura.
Inscriptions reveal that it was not only kings who contributed to the construction of tanks and irrigation channels in ancient Sri Lanka, but queens, ministers, and royal officials also played significant roles in these projects. Labhiya Vasabha, renowned as one of King Dutugamunu’s (161 – 137 BCE) mighty giants, earned a reputation for building several tanks. Similarly, another of King Dutugamunu’s prominent giants, Bulatha, is credited with constructing the Sorabora Wewa in the Badulla district.
Apart from royals and high officials, ordinary people who had wealth, had also constructed tanks, most probably Gam Wawu, and in some instances, they sold or leased these tanks to the State. Sometimes, they have offered these small tanks to the monasteries.
These records also indicate that certain village heads were proprietors of small tanks, known as gam wawu or village tanks. Part of their responsibilities included overseeing the maintenance of these tanks and managing the distribution of water to ensure fair and efficient use.
Notably, evidence also points to women owning some of these village tanks during the Anuradhapura period. This highlights that women held significant social roles, demonstrated financial independence, and acted as leaders within their communities. Their involvement in managing these vital resources underlines the progressive aspects of gender roles in ancient Sri Lanka, where women were entrusted with responsibilities that impacted both economic and social structures.
Inscriptions reveal that the tanks and canals in ancient Sri Lanka were significant sources of income for the State, Buddhist monasteries, and the local population. Taxes collected from these water systems supported the national economy, while Buddhist monasteries managed the revenues obtained from the tanks and canals gifted to them.
Beyond agriculture, these water bodies supported other livelihoods, such as fishing and the harvesting of flowers for sale. Additionally, a range of officials was responsible for managing and overseeing irrigation activities, highlighting the presence of specialised roles associated with the irrigation network.
These extensive tanks and canals also transformed the landscape, creating wetlands and promoting lush vegetation. This contributed to the habitat for diverse plant and animal life and helped maintain a humid and comfortable climate in the dry zone.
After Devanampiyathissa (3rd century BCE) to Vasabha (2nd century CE)
The period between the reigns of King Devanampiya Tissa and King Dutugamunu marked an era of significant change in Anuradhapura, defined by both internal developments and external challenges. This era, which included rulers such as Mahasiva, Uttiya, Surathissa, Sena and Guttika, Asela, Elara, and finally Dutugamunu, witnessed two major foreign invasions and various conflicts.
Following King Devanampiya Tissa, his younger brothers succeeded the throne, and during King Surathissa’s rule, the throne was usurped by Sena and Guttika. Subsequently, the youngest brother, Asela, reclaimed power by defeating Sena and Guttika but ruled for only a decade, before Elara overthrew him and established his reign over Anuradhapura for 44 years. Historical records do not provide much insight into whether King Elara undertook any significant irrigation work during his reign.
While Anuradhapura faced these upheavals, the Southern region known as Ruhuna or the Magama kingdom thrived under Sinhalese rulers, including the Katharagama Kshatriyas and the Dasaba dynasty. Inscriptional evidence reveals that these Southern rulers were responsible for constructing numerous tanks that contributed to the prosperity of the region.
Ancient Ruhuna extended far beyond the modern-day Southern Province, encompassing lands south of the Mahaweli River, stretching eastward to the coast and southward to the southern shores. Under King Saddhatissa’s rule, particularly in the Eastern Province, substantial irrigation work and agricultural advancements were realised.
By the early Christian era, numerous small tanks, known as gam wewa or village tanks, and an intricate network of canals connecting them to larger water bodies were established throughout Anuradhapura and the Rajarata region. During King Valagamba’s reign (104 BCE), a significant South Indian invasion occurred, leading to temporary political instability. In 88 BCE, King Valagamba reclaimed the throne, restoring political stability in Anuradhapura. Following this, until approximately 436 CE, Sri Lanka experienced relative political calm, interrupted only by minor internal disputes among royal families and dynasties. This prolonged period of peace fostered economic stability, allowing the rulers to focus on religious, cultural, and infrastructural projects. Kings of this period were noted for holding grand religious ceremonies and commissioning the construction of numerous monasteries and the embellishment of Anuradhapura, signifying a period of wealth and prosperity.
One noteworthy figure during this era was King Mahachulika Mahatissa (42–20 BCE), who constructed significant irrigation projects, including the construction of tanks such as Amradurga Maha Wewa and Bhayoluppala Wewa. Additionally, King Amandagamani Abhaya (21–30 CE) extended irrigation work to the Magama region, and King Ilanaga (37–43 CE) is credited with similar contributions in Rajarata.
Beginning of the Golden period
The era marking the golden age of irrigation development in Anuradhapura is often attributed to the reign of King Vasabha (67–111 CE). Historians acknowledge this period as the beginning of significant advancements in hydraulic engineering. King Vasabha was the first to initiate the construction of large-scale tanks, laying the groundwork for the extensive irrigation network that would characterise ancient Sri Lanka’s agricultural prowess. According to the Mahavamsa, the chronicles detail that King Vasabha commissioned 11 major tanks, with some notable examples being the Mayenthi Wewa, Rajupul Wewa, Kolombagamaka Wewa, and Kehala Wewa. He also constructed 12 canals.
One of Vasabha’s most significant achievements was the construction of the Elahara Canal, also known as the Aalisara Canal, which originally spanned about 30 miles (48 km). This canal was created by building a dam across the Amban River, and it was designed to direct water westward for agricultural purposes. Additionally, the reservoirs at Mahavilachchiya and Nochchipotana, both attributed to Vasabha, each have a circumference of approximately 2 miles (3.2 km).
In addition to his contributions to irrigation, King Vasabha was responsible for ambitious construction projects, including the erection of an 18-cubit high city rampart and the building of four grand city gates, enhancing the security and majesty of Anuradhapura. His vision extended to the development of elaborate city gardens, where, as mentioned in historical records, swans were bred—an indication of the king’s commitment to beautifying the urban landscape.
King Vasabha’s reign was marked not only by these significant public works but also by extensive restoration efforts across the island and the establishment of new monasteries. These endeavours point to a prosperous era in which the kingdom enjoyed solid economic growth. Agriculture and trade were the cornerstones of the ancient Rajarata economy, fuelling both its wealth and societal stability.
To be continued…
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